Hinduism

Long time ago, I wrote that I wanted to read some of the seminal texts of Hinduism. Since then, I have realized that I am unlikely to read even one. Instead, I am posting my book review for my History class at Michigan.

Introduction

What is it that defines the quintessential form of Hinduism? Is it the eternal formless Purusha? Is it the lord of all yogis, Shiva? Or is it ‘The Brahman’? Or the ancient rituals of the fire sacrifice? In these answers and many such like them lie part of a greater answer that exposes the vast diversity and the ever-changing character of the Hindu religion. The vast and diverse spectrum of this religious philosophy is a product of almost three millennia of change and evolution. In an attempt to answer this question, I will try to highlight the key transformations and ideas that the author, Thomas J Hopkins, writes about in his book, ‘The Hindi Religious Tradition’.

The early pantheon of Aryan gods is introduced as a model, which is forever recast as the principal actors of this cosmic bureaucracy gain and loses eminence. The importance of the priestly caste as a consequence of the importance of ritualistic ceremony is then described. Written texts of the period are used to support the cultural and religious norms of the time. These texts – the Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Sutras, etc – extend the ideologies of their predecessors, and in some cases making radical changes and assertion in the grand scheme of things. The book is, for the greater part, presented as a series of facts. It is sometimes not very clear how the author make certain claims, not necessarily supporting his view. The texts are quoted in direct support, but it is sometimes not clear why the religious thinkers of the time would be conducive to such changes.

Changes

One of theme that emerges from the book is that Hinduism as we know it today is a culmination of a process. It is the final product of the Aryan religion changing over many years. I will try to touch upon some important aspects of this process, some still extant in modern Indian society and others which have been subsumed.

I Laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice,
The hotar, lavishest of wealth.

Thus begins the Rig-Veda, the oldest of the Vedas. The first book of this Veda, lauds Agni and Indra for the most part. And so it remains for quite a majority of the earlier books of this ten book compendium. Thus, the author indicates a pantheon of gods in which Indra, Varuna, Agni among others are preeminent. It is proposed that the writings of the Rig-Veda reflect the changing ritual traditions of that time. It was difficult to understand from where the author makes this claim. Further it is claimed that the Rig-Veda was written at a time when the pantheon of gods had fallen to a stature below that of the ritualistic symbol of the fire sacrifice. The only reason to support this argument is the involvement of fire in daily rituals and its accessibility by the priesthood. The reasoning that the immortal gods would fall to disuse simply because of a more accessible conduit to their divinity, the fire, is at best unsupported in the book. A case is made for the rising importance of the “sound” of the sacrifice and the emergence of specialized priestly castes, namely the Hotris, the Udgatri, and the Adhvaryus. Reference is made that the Vedic tradition believed in a higher cosmic principle than even the established pantheon, later resolved to the Purusha or the Brahmana. In this idea lay the entire fabric of universe and time, a formless divinity. The ever growing importance of the fire sacrifice eventually leads to the idea that the ritual itself was the key element of the universe – from which all things have sprung.

Cyclical Patterns of Rebirth

The intent of the Vedas and the later commentaries on them, the Brahmanas, were written for material gain in this life, and with the merit of enough rituals, the passage to the world of the fathers. This was central to the motivation of religion and worship, however, with the arrival of the Upanishads and the Aranyakas, there was a shift in focus to the question of “Death in the afterlife” which later evolved into the idea of “rebirth”. The individual took importance and thus emerged the ideas of the ‘atman’. The nature of the Brahman became a central question. The inter-relation of karma and the cycle of rebirth was specified, thus it was in the teachings of Yajnavalkya we find this notion – that is so commonly associated with Indian religious lore. The Upanishads forward the idea of salvation as the ultimate goal. It is however, unclear as to what inspired the transformation of the religion from one seeking material gain through ritual sacrifice, to one which becomes organized around salvation. It would be very telling of the society of that time. But these transitions pre-date the Mauryan dynasty and such evidence may be missing.

The author makes a strong case in the point of the rise of new non-Vedic institutions linking them to the changing socio-political climate. The rise of Magadha and the fall of the traditional tribal Vedic states all over north India provide sufficient reason for the collapse of the established Vedic ritualistic tradition. This was compounded by the implications of the teachings of the Upanishads which proposed an unrealistic and inaccessible approach to salvation. It was in this vacuum that the Ajivakas, Jain and Buddhist faiths thrived- all trying to address the central question of salvation, albeit with very different ideologies.

The world view, towards the beginning of the sixth century was that of growing despondency. There was great speculation in the intellectual framework proposed by the Upanishadic teachings, what was needed was more clear directions for what would constitute a moral life and a path to salvation. Several such movements emerged; each spread by wandering ascetics, and many did not survive the death of its founders. The Ajivakas had a fatalist view of the world, in that they did not believe in the role of human action in the path to salvation. The Jains believed in severe austerities and the subsequent removal of impurity as if it were a fine matter deposited on the person. These views were distinctly non-Vedic, and although synthesized to include the concepts of karma, release and rebirth, their ideology was unique. The path of Buddhism was more moderate, austerities and sever bodily hardships were rejected as a positive path. Instead, stress was placed on dissociation for desire and meditation. This path was open to one and all regardless of caste and religion, which must have had great appeal to many lower castes of Hinduism.

Icons and Image-Worship

Losing ground to these new religions, there seems to be evidence of a restructuring of older Vedic ideology and formulation of more practical approaches to salvation. We see this in the emergence of Yoga, to achieve salvation through discipline and the attainment of a super-consciousness. Iconic worship also emerges in the era of Mauryan rule whereas traditional practices in pre- Mauryan Vedic rituals did not depict the image of gods. The ritual sufficed as a primary conduit. However, we see incidence of portrayal of the Buddha in human form. Some of this art had strong foreign influence e.g. Hellenistic influences in the northwest. Perhaps, as a consequence of this idea of icons, we see also an emergence of icons of classical Vedic gods, and resurgence of certain pre-Vedic gods which may have survived in popular cults for almost two thousand years. This is also evident in the theism of the later Upanishads. Brahma was more and more associated with the god Rudra. These icons or idols are mainstays of Hindu practices today.
The Orthopraxis of the Kalpasutras tried to provide a practical set of guidance of what is appropriate for the common given his status in society and his age in life. The Varnasrama-Dharma proposed in the Dharmasastras became some of the most influential ideas of the Hindu religion. It described what ‘ought’ to be done by people as a function of their Varna (caste) and of their asram (stage in life). The importance given to marriage and the role of the householder is what made this approach practicable and thus revived the interest in Hinduism.

Rise of Vishnu
Another coup-d’état occurs in the pantheon of gods with the popularization of the epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana. Vishnu-Shiva-Krishna step to the forefront and ascend to the cosmic throne. In the Mahabharata, on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, the Pandava prince Arjuna is taught by his charioteer, Krishna, the ideas of Bhakti. The text comprises the Bhagavad-Gita, which to this day remains a household reference on the philosophy of Hinduism. The addition to these epics of books focusing on the theism centered on Shiva and Vishnu indicate strongly the emergence of a new theism. It is the Puranas, which although in existence from the time of the Vedas, and modified and developed at this time, that define the modern day theistic norms of Hinduism.

Theism under the Gupta showed a major drive towards the building of temples along with the prominence of sects of Vishnu and Shiva. The Gupta monarchs were evidently followers of Vishnu, calling themselves ‘parama-bhagavatas’. Land grants for the building of temples in this time are well documented. Three major themes that are pervasive in the Indian household of today had their beginning in this era. The first theme is that of the Hindu puja and the second is the standardization of the murti of gods. Gods cast in sculpture holding typical mudras became a common form. The puja became a dominant form of worship as opposed to the sacrifice, which was reserved for larger occasions. The third is the worship of the devi, or female god, prominent among them was Durga. The worship of durga , for example, is the chief religious festival of eastern India, especially west Bengal.

The rise to eminence of the Krishna-Vishnu diety as the primary god of various Hindu sects becomes more evident. In the Bhagavata Purana, we see the rise a devotional sect that focuses on Krishna. Various devotional sects become popular especially in southern India.

Reform and Foreign Influence
In the concluding chapter, the author speaks of the stability of centuries which bound together the various threads of the Hindu religion, till the coming of Islam. It is purported that Islam did not leave its mark on Hinduism, except perhaps to have won some converts. Hybridized religions and views popularized by Kabir and Guru Nanak did however leave a mark on the religious landscape. British India, however, was noted for its deep impact and reform. Several practices of traditional Hindu society bordered on criminal for the British rulers. With a section of India society, educated abroad, came reforms in the person of likes of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of the Brahmo Samaj. The organization stood to eradicate the evils of contemporary India society and supported many western / Christian views. Arya Samaj called for a radical regression to past beliefs, in the literal meanings of the Vedas, often rejecting the philosophy of its many derivatives. This led to a resurgence of Hindu pride.

Vivekananda and his mentor Ramakrishna are painted as saints who transformed the Hindu religion by popularizing it and making it accessible to Indians abroad. Another example is that of the organization called ISKON, which derives from the vaishnavite sect centered around
Krishna.

Conclusion

The author draws a very convincing picture of the changes that made Hinduism as we know it today. Drawing from a wide variety of socio-political circumstances to give reason for particular changes, the author makes a very strong case in this particular evolution of the Hindu religion. A lay person may mistake the Hinduism of modern India to be emanating from one source, but the author shows correctly that no one idea represents Hinduism. He establishes without doubt, that various synthetic evolutions came together, rose and vanished, remained in fragments to produce a multi-faceted canvas that is ‘Hinduism’.